Table 2 Essential criteria to access the sustainability of renewable technologies, includes cost, payback period, and CO₂-equivalent (CO₂-e) emissions (EROEI – Energy Return on Investment)

Polycrystalline Si PV

1 to 1.5

6 to 48

20 – 40

Pb, SiCl_4, Cu

60.1 for 10 MW/year; 50 to 60; 64.2; 41.8; 65.2; 671 [58,59,60,61,62,63,64]

Thin film PV

900,000 to 1.8

 > 12

NA

Cr, As, Cd, Pb, Te, Cu, Se, In, Ga

40; 12 to 70; 20; 14; 26 [58, 65]

Wind

Onshore: 1.3 to 2.2

Offshore: 2.5 to 4

 < 24

18 – 35

Pb, Nd, Dy, Pr, Hg, Asbestos, Be, Cd

34.11; 1.7 to 81; [66,67,68,69]

Hydroelectric

2 to 5

 < 24

10—80

Hg, Cd, Cr, Ni

50 – 300 [68, 70,71,72]

Geothermal

Dry Steam: 2 to 5

Flash Steam: 3 to 8

Binary Cycle: 2 to 6

2 to 10

3.6 – 6

H₂S, B, S, As, Sb, Tl, Hg

1.7 to 81 [73, 74]

Biomass

500,000 to 2

6 to 24

3 – 20

Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Dioxins and Furans, Cl and S, Particulate Matter

100 to 400 [67, 70, 71]

Nuclear

Traditional: 6 to 9

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): 4 to 6

 > 24

75 – 150

U, Pu, Cs-137, Sr-90, I-131, C-60, Tc-99 m, Np, Actinides

12; 14; 120; 150 [67, 75, 76]