Fig. 1

Factors influencing problem-solving strategy selection. As decision stakes (y-axis) and/or system uncertainties (x-axis) increase, post-normal science’s (PNS) application to problem-solving also increases. These problem-solving strategies serve different goals (above dotted line) related to sustainability, introduce different sources of uncertainty (below dotted line), and incorporate different values (left hand side). The example of scientific approaches for addressing ‘plastic pollution’ is included to illustrate the impact of values on problem-solving strategies