Table 1 Key pedagogies for implementing ESD. Modified from ([6], p. 55)

A learner-centered approach

emphasizes the active development of knowledge through learning experiences that require learners to reflect on their own knowledge and learning processes

Action-oriented learning

draws on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle with the following stages:

1. Having a concrete experience,

2. Observing and reflecting,

3. Forming abstract concepts for generalization, and

4. Applying them in new situations [27]

Transformative learning

empowers learners to question and change the ways they see and think about the world in order to deepen their understanding of it [26, 28]